PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

Phonology is a branch of linguistic that study about how the sounds is used in certain language. Language concern about form(sounds and written), function and meaning. We need to study phonology because we have to use language to communicate with other people; besides, language consider about how the sounds is used to deliver the message. Consequently, we have to consider in studying phonology.

1.      Sounds

Sounds produce when something touch something and produce vibration. Sounds are produced by our articulators.

Vocal Apparatus

UL       : Upper lip

UT       : Upper teeth

A         : Alveolar ridge

P          : Palate(hard palate)

V         : Velum(soft palate)

U         : Uvulae

LL       : Lower lip

LT       : Lower teeth

T          : Tongue

TBL     : Tongue blade

TM      : Tongue mid

TB       : Tongue back

TR       : Tongue root

v  Voiced or Voiceless

There are two ways the sounds that produce can be voiced or voiceless :

a.       If the vocal cord open and does not vibrate, it will be voiceless sounds.

b.      If the vocal cord vibrate, it will be voiced sounds.

v  Stop or Nasal Voice

a.       Stop voice happen when upper lip and lower lip close. When the air stream out from vocal cord and try to escape, but our lips are closed and velum stick/close (p, b).

b.      Nasal voice happen when the air come out from vocal cord and try to escape, but our lips are closed and velum open then the air come out from nose (m).

v  Place/point of Articulation

Point of articulation are named by what they touch each other where the articulators approach, stick or touch each other. There are 8 place/point of articulations :

1. Bilabial, a consonant is called bilabial when the upper lip and lower lip press tightly against each other (p, b, m).
2. Labiodentals, a consonant is called labiodentals when the lower lip touches the upper teeth (f, v).
3. Dental, dental consonant is produced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth (th).
4. Alveolar, an alveolar consonant is produced when the tip of the tongue touches or approach the teeth ridge (back of the teeth/ alveoli) (t, d, s, z, n, l, r).
5. Alveo-palatal/ palate alveolar, when the tongue touches a point between the teeth ridge/alveolar and the hard palate (ʃ, ʧ, ʒ, ʤ).
6. Palatal, a consonant is called palatal when the tongue touches the hard palate (j).
7. Velar, a velar consonant is produced when the back of tongue touches the soft palate/ velum (k, g).
8. Glottal, a glottal consonant does not involved the tongue; instead, it is produced between the glottis (ʔ/h).

v  Consonant

Consonants produce when there is obstacles when the air comes out wheather it approach, stick or touch the articulators. Vowel/ vocal sound produce when the air come freely through the mouth, just mouth and tongue.

v  Manner of Articulations

Manner of articulations are the way how the air comes and makes sounds or the way how the sounds is produced by the articulators. There are 7 manner of articulations :

1. Plosive, is produced when the air escape through the mouth with a slight explosion.
2. Fricative, is produced by letting the air go out through a narrow opening in the mouth.
3. Affricative, is produced by a gradual release of the air through a tightly narrow opening in the mouth.
4. Nasal, is produced by letting the air go out through the nose.
5. Lateral, is produced by letting the air go out through one or both side of the tongue.
6. Liquid, is produced by letting the air pass through the( rolled or flapped) tip of the tongue.
7. Semi vowel, is produced by letting the air go out through the opening between the lips.

v  Place and Manner of Articulations

1. Bilabial

1. Place of articulation, bilabial sounds is produced when the lower lip touch the upper lip.
2. Manner of articulation, when the air passes the articulators there is lips closure and the existence of air pressure in the mouth but when the closure is released there is a plosive sound.

There are 2 bilabial :

• Nasal bilabial (m)
• Stop bilabial (p,b)

Stop voiced mean when the velum raise, velum open when nasal sound(m, n, ɳ)

Ex : -mom, - plain

 

                                       /b/

 

                                       /p/

 

                                       Only /p/

2.      Labiodental

·        Place of articulation, the sounds is produced when the lower lip touches the upper teeth.

·        Manner of articulation, fricative ( when the air still can come out), the sounds is produced when the air come and pass through the articulators and the lower lip approaches upper teeth and the air still can come out.

Voiceless /f/

Voiced /v/

3.      Dental

·        Place of articulation, the sounds is produced when the tongue tip touches the upper teeth.

·        Manner of articulation, fricative, the sounds is produced when the air come and pass the articulator and tongue tip approach the upper teeth and the air still can comes out.

Voiceless/Ɵ/

Voiced/ð/

2.      Vowel

Vowel/vocal sounds are produced when the air come freely through the mouth and there is no obstacle. All vowel are voiced when we produce vowel, we only concern about the position of the tongue and the shape of the lips.

 

                                                                                             

Front vowel : unrounded

Back vowel : rounded

1.      Heed / hi: d/

2.      Hid / hId/

3.      Head / hèd/

4.      Had / hæd/

5.      Father / faðə(r)/

6.      Good / gʊd/

·        Consonant cluster happen when there are more than one consonant together.

·        Five long vowels : i:, ʒ, o, U, A

Ø  Phonology, how the sounds is used in certain language.

Ø  Phonetic, how the sound is produced by the articulators.

Ø  When we produce vowel in palatal position, there are front vowels.

Ø  When we produce vowel in velar position, there are back vowels.

3.      Diphthong

Diphthong is one vowel glides to another, the first vowel must be more stress than the second one, first is long vowel and second is short vowel.

a.      Diphthong end with ‘ə’

·        

U

i::

iə : hear

·        

I

Ʊ

eə : aired

·        

ə

e

ʊə : pour

b.     

o

diphthong end with ‘I’

·        

Ɔ

ɜ

ɛ

eI : day

·         aI : may

·        

A

a

ƆI : toy

c.      Diphthong end with ‘ʊ’

·         əʊ : low

·         aʊ : gown.

4.      Triphthongs

Triphthong is a glides from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produce rapidly and without interruption.

U

I:

Triphthongs :

a.     

Ʊ

I

eIə : layer

b.      aIə : liar

c.     

o

ə

e

ƆIə : loyal

d.    

Ɔ

ɜ

ɛ

əʊə : lower

e.      aʊə : power

			A

 

5.      Phonological Rule

a.      Voice :

·         (+ voiced) : b, d, g, ð, v, z, ʒ, ʤ and all vowels.

·         (-voiced) : p, t, k, Ɵ, f, s, ʃ, ʧ.

b.      Place :

·         (+ denti-alveolar) : t, f, v, s, Ɵ, z, l, r.

·         (+ bilabial) : p, b, m, f, v.

·         (+ palatal) : ʃ, ʒ, J, all front vowels.

·         (+ velar) : k, g, ɳ, all back vowels.

c.      Manner :

Ø  Stop :

·         (+stop) : p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ɳ.

·         (+ fricative) : f, v, ʧ, ʒ, ʤ, s, z, Ɵ, ʃ.

·         (+ approximant) : w, y, l, r, all vowels.

Ø  Nasal :

·         (+ nasal) : m, n, ɳ

·         (-nasal) : all other segments

Ø  Lateral :

·         (+ lateral) : l, r

·         (- lateral) : all other segments

Ø  Sibilant :

·         (+ sibilant) : s, ʃ, ʧ, J

·         (- sibilant) : all other segments

Ø  Vowel back :

·         (+ back) : o, u , A

·         (- back) : all other segments

Ø  Syllabic :

·         (+ syllabic) : all vowels

·         (- syllabic) : consonants

Segment

a.      Phonetic is  description of language about the sounds base on its production through articulation

b.      Phonemic level is set of segments that has same function in a language /limited/.

·         Autograph : bridge

·         Segment : /brIʤ/ 4 segments

·         Phonetic level :

c.      Allophone

Allophone  is variant of phonemes.

(P)

 

           

#

(P^h)

k

(P^┐)

Note :

1. S- : place after ‘s’
2. –k : before consonant
3. #- : initial
4. -# : place at the end of the word.

• ‘t ‘ will pronounce ‘d’ if followed by vowel.
• Schwa a, the, re the stress always after the schwa (apologize)

Allophone of ‘L’ :

1. ‘L’ alveolar : like, look /l/
2. ‘L’ tongue glides back : milk, swallow /ᶂ/
3. ‘L’ syllabic( sound like vowel) : simple, temple/ᶋ/

v  Function of phoneme is to make contrast or the phones of the language , but allophone is variant of phoneme that is determine phoneticly. The different between two classification is based on guessing (assumption).

v  The change of phonetic based on allophone caused by :

1.      The position in a word.

2.      Quality of phonetic from the sounds that is closed by.

3.      The influence of the sound prosodicly (whether is stress or not).

v  CVC called consonantal, the stress is at the end (nod, tab)

Will be

Phonetic segment

 

v  A letter in phonemes can be shorten if followed by –voiced (cap, let, sat)

 

v  The phonemes will be mention longer if followed by +voiced (sad, cab, bag)

 

v  Glottal forming

									nasal

 

‘t’, ‘d’ :

1. Laden / leidn/
2. Mountain / mounʔn/
3. Chasm /ʧa: zm/

6. Predictable alteration of the sounds.

1. ‘ai’ become ‘I’

Divine /dI’vain/ à divinity / dI’vInəti/

2. ‘i:’ become ‘e’

Serene / sə’ri:n/ à serenity / sə’renəti/

3. ‘ei’ become ‘ai’

Explain /iks’plein/ à eplaination / iksplaineʃn/

4. ‘au’ become ‘Ʌ’

South / saʊƟ/ à southern / sɅðən/

5. ‘u:’ become ‘ Ɔ’

Fool / fu:l/ à fooly / fƆli/

6. ‘əʊ’ become ‘Ɔ’

Tone /təʊn/ à tonic /’tƆnIk/

v  Assimilaton occurs when there is phonemes come in.

7. Syllable

Syllable is when you say vowel in a word.

• Onset   : first consonant
• Peak    : vowel
• Coda   : consonant

Syllable can be analized in 2 ways :

1. Phonetically

Syllable phonetically is description of the vowel in the centre that has no obstruction to air flow which sounds comparatively loud before and after the centre. It can be analized in 5 ways :

1. Minimum syllable, s /es/ because we say it with vowel.
2. Silent syllable, or/o/, are / a:/
3. Syllable without coda, car / ka:/
4. Syllable without onset, aim /eim/
5. Syllable with onset, peak and coda, run /rɅn/

2. Phonologically

Phonologically syllable consist of consonant or vowel having different distribution.

v  Onset : pre initial, initial, post initial.

v 

coda

peak

onzet

Coda : pre final, final, post final 1, 2, 3

Example :

Pre-initial

Splashed / splæʃt/ (S  P  l)  (æ)  (ʃ  t)

	initial				final

 

8. Citation

Citation is the form of a word that pronounce in assimilation, at least one syllable is fully stress and has no reduction of the vowel quality. If a word has no reduction, it is called strong form and if come in a sentence become weak form(citation).

v  If A, I, u, e, o preceded by ‘to’, it must pronounce ‘to’. If it is not vowel, it pronounces ‘tə’.

Example of citation :

1. And /ænd/ à /nd/, /ən/, /n/.
2. As / æs/ à /ez/, /z/.
3. In / n/ if it is followed by dental consonant (ex : in the yard).
4. A / ei/ à /ə/.
5. At / æt/ à/ət/.
6. Would /wud/ à/wəd l/, /d/
7. Must /mɅst/ à/məst/, /ms/
8. That / Ɵæt/ à /Ɵət/
9. Can / kæn/ à/kən/, /kn/
10. He /hi:/ à/ hI/, /I/

9. Intonation

Intonation is talked about pitch. If we talk in spoken language the intonation can be changed but in song, the pitch should be correct.

v 

Tone group

Intonation of the sentence is a pattern of pitch changes that occurs in spoken language. The part of the sentence which a particular extend is called a tone group but a single syllable that stand out of a major pitch is called tonic syllable.

 

Examples :

 

1. The girl gives the money to her father.

 

2. John will go to Japan on Monday.

 

3. The boy took the girl   into the hut  in the jungle near the lake.

 

4. I sat next to you   reading a book.

 

5. When I was a child, I swam in the river.

 

6. Diana  is  a  secretary.

• Higher voice is command.
• Lower voice is topic.

v  + raising and + falling

1. + raising

When there is yes/no question.

 

Do you know my name?

The answer :

·         Yes            : ‘ya’ à yes

·         Yes            : did you say that? à yes (high)

·         Yes            : go on à yes (low raising)

·         Yes            : I am doubtful à yes

·         Yes            : I am certain à yes

2. + falling

When there is question word.

 

What is your name?

è If there are some yes/no question before question word, it will be (+raising).

 

Can you tell me what is your name?

3. Clause

 

If I have a boyfriend, I will love him very much.

4. Compound noun/object.

 

I  have  a  book, pen, and pencil.

5. Choses

 

Do you like boy or girl?

10. Stress

A stress syllable is produced by pushing more air out of the lung a relative to other. A stress syllable has greater respiratory energy than neighbouring unstress syllable.

There are 2 major function of stress in English :

1. To give emphasize to words or to contrast the word.

è If the word belong to function word, it will be unstress.

è If the word belong to content word, it will be stress.

2. To indicate the syntactic relationship between words and part of words.

• An ‘insult (Noun)
• To  in’sult (Verb)
• An ‘increase (noun)
• To in’crease (verb)

v  Opposition word phrase from a compound noun.

a.       If the stress in the first word, it will be a noun phrase.

b.      If both elements are stressed, it will be a verb phrase.

Example :

è ‘hot dog (noun phrase)

è ‘hot ‘dog (adjective phrase)

è ‘push down ( noun phrase)

è ‘push ‘down ( verb phrase)